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The influence of education on social mobility in Croatia and Greece: a comparative analysis
Georgios Kitsoleris* 
Georgios Kitsoleris
Affiliation: De Montfort University, Leicester Castle Business School, Leicester, United Kingdom; Perrotis College, American Farm School, Marinou Antipa, Thessaloniki, Greece
 0009-0004-1120-0849
Correspondence
georgios.kitsoleris@dmu.ac.uk
Article | Year: 2025 | Pages: 615 - 643 | Volume: 49 | Issue: 4 Received: June 27, 2025 | Accepted: September 5, 2025 | Published online: December 2, 2025
|
FULL ARTICLE
FIGURES & DATA
REFERENCES
CROSSMARK POLICY
METRICS
LICENCING
PDF
|
ISCO-08 major groups
|
Skill level
|
Levels of education (ISCED-97)
|
|
1. Managers, senior officials and
legislators
|
3-4
|
Second stage of tertiary (leading to
an advanced research qualification)
First stage of tertiary, first degree (medium duration)
|
|
2. Professionals
|
|
3. Technicians and associate
professionals
|
3
|
First stage of tertiary education
(short or medium duration)
|
|
4. Clerks
|
2
|
Post-secondary, non-tertiary
education
Upper secondary level
Lower secondary level of
|
|
5. Service and sales workers
|
|
6. Skilled agricultural and fishery
workers
|
|
7. Craft and related trades workers
|
|
8. Plant and machine operators, and
assemblers
|
|
9. Elementary occupations
|
1
|
Primary level
|
|
Birth cohorts of children
|
Immobility
|
Upward
|
Downward
|
Observations
|
|
Croatia
|
|
1950-1959
|
0.269
|
0.708
|
0.024
|
2,438
|
|
1960-1969
|
0.273
|
0.700
|
0.028
|
7,262
|
|
1970-1979
|
0.403
|
0.547
|
0.050
|
6,308
|
|
1980-1989
|
0.492
|
0.450
|
0.059
|
4,353
|
|
1990-1999
|
0.516
|
0.407
|
0.077
|
1,855
|
|
Greece
|
|
1950-1959
|
0.386
|
0.595
|
0.020
|
1,931
|
|
1960-1969
|
0.310
|
0.659
|
0.031
|
9,880
|
|
1970-1979
|
0.287
|
0.674
|
0.039
|
9,615
|
|
1980-1989
|
0.339
|
0.615
|
0.046
|
6,477
|
|
1990-1999
|
0.440
|
0.479
|
0.081
|
2,287
|
|
Birth cohort
|
1950-1959
|
1960-1969
|
1970-1979
|
1980-1989
|
|
Skill levels
|
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
|
Female
|
0.015*
|
0.020*
|
-0.017*
|
-0.018*
|
0.021***
|
0.017***
|
-0.016***
|
-0.021***
|
0.005
|
0.008
|
-0.006
|
-0.008
|
-0.038***
|
0.078***
|
0.043***
|
0.073***
|
|
(0.007)
|
(0.009)
|
(0.008)
|
(0.008)
|
(0.006)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.005)
|
(0.006)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.008)
|
(0.006)
|
(0.008)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.015)
|
(0.008)
|
(0.014)
|
|
Age
|
0.001
|
0.002
|
-0.002
|
-0.002
|
0.001
|
0.001
|
-0.001
|
-0.001
|
-0.001
|
-0.001
|
0.001
|
0.001
|
0.001
|
0.001
|
-0.001
|
-0.001
|
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
|
Parental class
|
|
2
|
-0.058***
|
-0.034***
|
0.048***
|
0.044***
|
-0.069***
|
-0.018***
|
0.042***
|
0.045***
|
-0.078***
|
-0.031***
|
0.054***
|
0.055***
|
-0.075***
|
-0.036***
|
0.052***
|
0.060***
|
|
(0.011)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.008)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.010)
|
(0.003)
|
(0.005)
|
(0.006)
|
(0.013)
|
(0.005)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.021)
|
(0.008)
|
(0.012)
|
(0.013)
|
|
3
|
-0.103***
|
-0.168***
|
0.121***
|
0.150***
|
-0.126***
|
-0.102***
|
0.096***
|
0.132***
|
-0.128***
|
-0.137***
|
0.113***
|
0.152***
|
-0.130***
|
-0.174***
|
0.114***
|
0.191***
|
|
(0.012)
|
(0.029)
|
(0.014)
|
(0.024)
|
(0.011)
|
(0.016)
|
(0.009)
|
(0.016)
|
(0.013)
|
(0.020)
|
(0.011)
|
(0.018)
|
(0.021)
|
(0.027)
|
(0.015)
|
(0.027)
|
|
4
|
-0.120***
|
-0.305***
|
0.153***
|
0.271***
|
-0.168***
|
-0.271***
|
0.130***
|
0.310***
|
-0.157***
|
-0.289***
|
0.143***
|
0.304***
|
-0.149***
|
-0.283***
|
0.129***
|
0.304***
|
|
(0.011)
|
(0.035)
|
(0.012)
|
(0.034)
|
(0.009)
|
(0.020)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.023)
|
(0.013)
|
(0.019)
|
(0.009)
|
(0.021)
|
(0.021)
|
(0.024)
|
(0.014)
|
(0.026)
|
|
Obs.
|
2,018
|
4,436
|
3,287
|
1,544
|
|
Birth cohort
|
1950-1959
|
1960-1969
|
1970-1979
|
1980-1989
|
|
Skill levels
|
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
|
Female
|
0.044***
|
0.064***
|
-0.043***
|
-0.066***
|
-0.002
|
-0.003
|
0.001
|
0.004
|
-0.002
|
-0.004
|
0.002
|
0.004
|
-0.022***
|
-0.047***
|
0.017***
|
0.052***
|
|
(0.08)
|
(0.010)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.010)
|
(0.003)
|
(0.006)
|
(0.002)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.003)
|
(0.006)
|
(0.002)
|
(0.006)
|
(0.004)
|
(0.009)
|
(0.003)
|
(0.009)
|
|
Age
|
-0.001
|
-0.001
|
0.001
|
0.001
|
0.001
|
0.001
|
-0.001
|
-0.001
|
-0.001
|
-0.001*
|
0.001
|
0.001*
|
-0.001***
|
-0.003***
|
0.001***
|
0.003***
|
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
|
Parental class
|
|
2
|
-0.058
|
-0.026***
|
0.037*
|
0.047**
|
-0.059***
|
-0.035***
|
0.030***
|
0.064***
|
-0.061***
|
-0.036***
|
0.034***
|
0.063***
|
-0.109***
|
-0.037***
|
0.047***
|
0.099***
|
|
(0.038)
|
(0.004)
|
(0.018)
|
(0.020)
|
(0.015)
|
(0.003)
|
(0.006)
|
(0.011)
|
(0.014)
|
(0.003)
|
(0.006)
|
(0.010)
|
(0.027)
|
(0.008)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.013)
|
|
3
|
-0.134***
|
-0.382***
|
0.118***
|
0.398***
|
-0.120***
|
-0.235***
|
0.076***
|
0.278***
|
-0.119***
|
-0.211***
|
0.084***
|
0.246***
|
-0.162***
|
0.212***
|
0.088***
|
0.285***
|
|
(0.038)
|
(0.073)
|
(0.021)
|
(0.089)
|
(0.016)
|
(0.038)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.043)
|
(0.015)
|
(0.003)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.035)
|
(0.027)
|
(0.036)
|
(0.009)
|
(0.039)
|
|
4
|
-0.118***
|
-0.221***
|
0.113***
|
0.227***
|
-0.127***
|
-0.291***
|
0.077***
|
0.340***
|
-0.129***
|
-0.285***
|
0.088***
|
0.326***
|
-0.171***
|
-0.287***
|
0.090***
|
0.368***
|
|
(0.038)
|
(0.034)
|
(0.020)
|
(0.037)
|
(0.015)
|
(0.016)
|
(0.006)
|
(0.020)
|
(0.014)
|
(0.015)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.018)
|
(0.027)
|
(0.019)
|
(0.008)
|
(0.022)
|
|
Obs.
|
1,954
|
7,945
|
7,736
|
4,561
|
Source: Authors’ own calculations based on the EU-SILC data.
|
Croatia
|
Greece
|
|
Downward
|
Immobility
|
Upward
|
Downward
|
Immobility
|
Upward
|
|
Age
|
-0.003***
|
-0.002*
|
0.005***
|
-0.001*
|
-0.003***
|
0.004**
|
|
(0.0001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.001)
|
|
Gender(female)
|
0.120
|
0.029*
|
-0.041***
|
0.054***
|
-0.067***
|
0.013
|
|
(0.010)
|
(0.012)
|
(0.012)
|
(0.005)
|
(0.009)
|
(0.008)
|
|
Educational
level
|
|
Upper
secondary education
|
-0.186*
|
0.092
|
0.094
|
-0.095***
|
-0.005
|
0.100***
|
|
(0.089)
|
(0.086)
|
(0.070)
|
(0.011)
|
(0.013)
|
(0.008)
|
|
Higher
education
|
-0.275***
|
-0.067
|
0.342***
|
-0.142***
|
-0.287***
|
0.430***
|
|
(0.089)
|
(0.087)
|
(0.071)
|
(0.012)
|
(0.015)
|
(0.011)
|
|
Marital
status (married)
|
-0.068***
|
-0.005
|
0.074***
|
0.034***
|
-0.001
|
0.035***
|
|
(0.011)
|
(0.014)
|
(0.014)
|
(0.060)
|
(0.010)
|
(0.009)
|
|
Citizenship
(Native)
|
-0.021
|
0.458
|
-0.023
|
-0.106***
|
0.033
|
0.073***
|
|
(0.069)
|
(0.088)
|
(0.084)
|
(0.010)
|
(0.022)
|
(0.022)
|
|
Birth cohorts
after 70s
|
-0.015
|
0.001
|
0.015
|
0.011
|
-0.036*
|
0.024
|
|
(0.019)
|
(0.020)
|
(0.023)
|
(0.011)
|
(0.016)
|
(0.015)
|
|
Number of
siblings
|
-0.070
|
0.007
|
0.001
|
0.003
|
0.010*
|
-0.014***
|
|
(0.004)
|
(0.005)
|
(0.001)
|
(0.002)
|
(0.004)
|
(0.004)
|
|
Urbanization
(cities)
|
0.055***
|
0.026*
|
-0.081***
|
0.017**
|
-0.030***
|
0.012
|
|
(0.130)
|
(0.017)
|
(0.017)
|
(0.007)
|
(0.010)
|
(0.009)
|
|
Obs.
|
|
6,156
|
|
|
11,734
|
|
Note: The symbols *, ** and *** denote statistical significance at 10%, 5% and 1%. Robust
standard errors are in parentheses. Source: Analysis of cross-sectional and longitudinal microdata from the EU-SILC survey (authors’
calculations).
|
Variables
|
Croatia
|
Greece
|
|
Gender
|
|
Male
|
49.47
|
48.52
|
|
Female
|
50.53
|
51.48
|
|
Age
|
|
|
|
30-39
|
18.6
|
22.25
|
|
40-49
|
29.79
|
31.00
|
|
50-60
|
41.07
|
39.07
|
|
Highest level of education for children
|
|
Primary
|
1.61
|
13.27
|
|
Secondary
|
78.03
|
56.33
|
|
Tertiary
|
20.36
|
30.41
|
|
Highest level of parental education
|
|
Primary
|
49.17
|
66.23
|
|
Secondary
|
40.68
|
22.76
|
|
Tertiary
|
10.15
|
11.01
|
|
Number of observations by ad-hoc module
|
|
2011
|
6,701
|
5,642
|
|
2019
|
7,771
|
15,473
|
|
2023
|
7,744
|
9,075
|
|
Total number of
observations
|
22,216
|
30,190
|
|
Variables
|
Croatia
|
Greece
|
|
Gender
|
|
Male
|
51.41
|
53.85
|
|
Female
|
48.59
|
46.15
|
|
30-39
|
20.24
|
22.49
|
|
40-49
|
30.85
|
32.22
|
|
50-60
|
40.79
|
38.57
|
|
Highest level of occupation for children
|
|
1
|
11.10
|
8.65
|
|
2
|
58.24
|
61.19
|
|
3
|
15.28
|
10.92
|
|
4
|
15.38
|
19.25
|
|
Highest level of parental occupation
|
|
1
|
24.04
|
5.32
|
|
2
|
53.63
|
81.15
|
|
3
|
9.93
|
1.80
|
|
4
|
12.40
|
11.72
|
|
Total number of
observations
|
12,282
|
24,214
|
Source: Authors’ own calculations based on the EU-SILC data.
|
Sons
|
Immobility
|
Upward
|
Downward
|
Observations
|
|
Croatia
|
|
1950-1959
|
0.246
|
0.730
|
0.024
|
1,159
|
|
1960-1969
|
0.271
|
0.698
|
0.031
|
3,483
|
|
1970-1979
|
0.410
|
0.532
|
0.058
|
3,092
|
|
1980-1989
|
0.523
|
0.401
|
0.076
|
2,236
|
|
1990-1999
|
0.554
|
0.354
|
0.092
|
1,020
|
|
Greece
|
|
1950-1959
|
0.323
|
0.660
|
0.016
|
913
|
|
1960-1969
|
0.298
|
0.674
|
0.028
|
4,679
|
|
1970-1979
|
0.292
|
0.671
|
0.038
|
4,640
|
|
1980-1989
|
0.354
|
0.589
|
0.056
|
3,222
|
|
1990-1999
|
0.484
|
0.423
|
0.093
|
1,195
|
Source: Authors’ own calculations based on the EU-SILC data.
|
Daughters
|
Immobility
|
Upward
|
Downward
|
Observations
|
|
Croatia
|
|
1950-1959
|
0.289
|
0.687
|
0.023
|
1,279
|
|
1960-1969
|
0.274
|
0.701
|
0.025
|
3,779
|
|
1970-1979
|
0.396
|
0.561
|
0.043
|
3,216
|
|
1980-1989
|
0.459
|
0.502
|
0.040
|
2,117
|
|
1990-1999
|
0.471
|
0.472
|
0.057
|
835
|
|
Greece
|
|
1950-1959
|
0.442
|
0.535
|
0.023
|
1,018
|
|
1960-1969
|
0.322
|
0.646
|
0.033
|
5,201
|
|
1970-1979
|
0.283
|
0.677
|
0.040
|
4,975
|
|
1980-1989
|
0.324
|
0.641
|
0.035
|
3,255
|
|
1990-1999
|
0.392
|
0.539
|
0.069
|
1,092
|
|
Odds ratios for both genders
|
Confidence intervals (95%)
|
Odds ratios for Sons
|
Odds ratios for Daughters
|
|
Croatia
|
1950-59
|
8.72
|
5.87 – 12.95
|
8.26
|
9.19
|
|
1960-69
|
9.81
|
8.03
– 11.98
|
8.22
|
11.5
|
|
1970-79
|
7.37
|
6.25 – 8.71
|
6.85
|
8.12
|
|
1980-89
|
5.61
|
4.7
– 6.71
|
5.83
|
6.42
|
|
1990-99
|
3.83
|
3.01 – 4.88
|
4.51
|
3.64
|
|
Greece
|
1950-59
|
8.43
|
5.3
– 13.44
|
12.3
|
6.89
|
|
1960-69
|
6.77
|
5.75 – 7.97
|
7.59
|
6.13
|
|
1970-79
|
6.53
|
5.67
– 7.54
|
7.46
|
5.81
|
|
1980-89
|
5.79
|
4.98 – 6.75
|
5.82
|
6.27
|
|
1990-99
|
4.23
|
3.46
– 5.19
|
4.82
|
3.85
|
Source: Authors’ own calculations based on the EU-SILC data.
|
Module
|
|
Parental education
|
UM
|
DM
|
IM
|
Odds ratios
|
|
|
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
|
|
|
|
|
2011
|
Child’s education
|
1
|
0.921
|
0.073
|
0.004
|
0.605
|
0.042
|
0.353
|
7.74
|
|
2
|
0.605
|
0.345
|
0.048
|
|
3
|
0.233
|
0.489
|
0.276
|
|
2019
|
1
|
0.831
|
0.156
|
0.012
|
0.605
|
0.044
|
0.351
|
7.67
|
|
2
|
0.589
|
0.357
|
0.053
|
|
3
|
0.222
|
0.478
|
0.300
|
|
2023
|
1
|
0.742
|
0.228
|
0.028
|
0.543
|
0.045
|
0.411
|
6.92
|
|
2
|
0.497
|
0.445
|
0.057
|
|
3
|
0.131
|
0.572
|
0.296
|
Source: Authors’ own calculations based on the EU-SILC data.
|
Module
|
|
Parental education
|
UM
|
DM
|
IM
|
Odds ratios
|
|
|
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
|
|
|
|
|
2011
|
Child’s education
|
1
|
0.972
|
0.019
|
0.008
|
0.661
|
0.033
|
0.306
|
6.41
|
|
2
|
0.796
|
0.151
|
0.051
|
|
3
|
0.503
|
0.278
|
0.218
|
|
2019
|
1
|
0.950
|
0.042
|
0.007
|
0.640
|
0.034
|
0.326
|
7.82
|
|
2
|
0.741
|
0.210
|
0.048
|
|
3
|
0.431
|
0.323
|
0.245
|
|
2023
|
1
|
0.950
|
0.042
|
0.033
|
0.616
|
0.053
|
0.331
|
5.01
|
|
2
|
0.656
|
0.267
|
0.076
|
|
3
|
0.364
|
0.361
|
0.274
|
Source: Authors’ own calculations based on the EU-SILC data.
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