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Why are older informal carers in better health? Solving a causality problem
Preliminary communication | Year: 2018 | Pages: 303 - 323 | Volume: 42 | Issue: 3 Received: May 23, 2018 | Accepted: July 12, 2018 | Published online: September 3, 2018
|
FULL ARTICLE
FIGURES & DATA
REFERENCES
CROSSMARK POLICY
METRICS
LICENCING
PDF
|
|
Country
|
Helpgiving_tot
|
Helpgiving_out
|
Helpgiving_wtin
|
|
Scand
|
Sweden
|
1,527,567
|
1,460,927
|
113,159
|
|
Denmark
|
1,048,569
|
1,005,553
|
92,927
|
|
Netherlands
|
2,376,857
|
2,163,370
|
315,709
|
|
Contin
|
Austria
|
953,164
|
833,773
|
177,566
|
|
Belgium
|
1,637,570
|
1,426,540
|
331,931
|
|
France
|
8,371,773
|
7,252,966
|
1,507,020
|
|
Germany
|
12,648,003
|
11,455,470
|
1,745,328
|
|
Luxembourg
|
52,710
|
45,376
|
10,395
|
|
Switzerland
|
839,445
|
790,900
|
90,097
|
|
Medit
|
Italy
|
7,153,458
|
6,053,197
|
1,691,223
|
|
Spain
|
3,572,164
|
2,512,323
|
1,268,977
|
|
East
|
Czech Republic
|
1,483,696
|
1,341,115
|
298,467
|
|
Estonia
|
172,302
|
150,356
|
36,329
|
|
Slovenia
|
131,627
|
106,774
|
39,095
|
|
Mix
|
Israel
|
306,143
|
198,250
|
119,050
|
|
Tot
|
Total
|
42,275,048
|
36,796,889
|
7,837,273
|
|
Probit: Help_outside
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
|
Gender
|
0.0095
|
0.84
|
|
0.0104
|
0.91
|
|
-0.0016
|
-0.14
|
|
|
Age
|
-0.0239
|
-28.51
|
***
|
-0.0234
|
-28.12
|
***
|
-0.0233
|
-27.80
|
***
|
|
Edu_Years
|
0.0190
|
13.59
|
***
|
0.0190
|
13.61
|
***
|
0.0191
|
13.63
|
***
|
|
Income_Middle
|
0.0371
|
2.67
|
***
|
0.0373
|
2.69
|
***
|
0.0392
|
2.81
|
***
|
|
Income_Upper
|
0.1028
|
7.19
|
***
|
0.1026
|
7.16
|
***
|
0.1077
|
7.48
|
***
|
|
Retired vs. Employed
|
0.0789
|
4.76
|
***
|
0.0818
|
4.94
|
***
|
0.0789
|
4.75
|
***
|
|
Other vs. Employed
|
-0.0225
|
-1.20
|
|
-0.0162
|
-0.87
|
|
-0.0260
|
-1.38
|
|
|
Hh_Size
|
-0.0514
|
-8.12
|
***
|
-0.0513
|
-8.11
|
***
|
-0.0510
|
-8.02
|
***
|
|
Physical_Inactivity
|
-0.3691
|
-16.73
|
***
|
-0.3638
|
-16.52
|
***
|
-0.3883
|
-17.27
|
***
|
|
Memory
|
0.0377
|
13.23
|
***
|
0.0369
|
12.91
|
***
|
0.0384
|
13.33
|
***
|
|
Continental
|
0.1064
|
7.68
|
***
|
0.1045
|
7.51
|
***
|
0.1037
|
7.43
|
***
|
|
Socialdemocratic
|
0.4534
|
25.15
|
***
|
0.4553
|
24.65
|
***
|
0.4624
|
25.46
|
***
|
|
Mediterranean
|
-0.1866
|
-9.79
|
***
|
-0.1893
|
-9.93
|
***
|
-0.1897
|
-9.90
|
***
|
|
Chronic diseases
|
0.0404
|
3.50
|
***
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Self-rated Health
|
|
|
|
0.0077
|
0.60
|
|
|
|
|
|
Depression
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.1052
|
7.93
|
***
|
|
Constant
|
0.5855
|
8.89
|
***
|
0.5676
|
8.53
|
***
|
0.5541
|
8.35
|
***
|
|
Observations
|
62257
|
|
|
62330
|
|
|
61547
|
|
|
|
LR Chi2
|
5073.81
|
***
|
|
5032.93
|
***
|
|
5001.36
|
***
|
|
|
Pseudo R2
|
0.0673
|
|
|
0.0667
|
|
|
0.0670
|
|
|
|
Log Likelihood
|
-35168.70
|
|
|
-35221.55
|
|
|
-34847.12
|
|
|
|
Help_total
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
|
Gender
|
0.0246
|
2.72
|
***
|
0.0183
|
2.11
|
**
|
0.0282
|
2.82
|
***
|
|
Age
|
-0.0071
|
-10.03
|
***
|
-0.0078
|
-12.34
|
***
|
-0.0079
|
-12.62
|
***
|
|
Edu_Years
|
0.0030
|
2.86
|
***
|
0.0028
|
2.64
|
***
|
0.0032
|
3.07
|
***
|
|
Income_Middle
|
0.0133
|
1.33
|
|
0.0108
|
1.09
|
|
0.0132
|
1.33
|
|
|
Income_Upper
|
0.0161
|
1.45
|
|
0.0124
|
1.10
|
|
0.0174
|
1.57
|
|
|
Retired vs. Employed
|
0.0258
|
1.69
|
*
|
0.0159
|
1.16
|
|
0.0068
|
0.52
|
|
|
Other vs. Employed
|
0.0112
|
0.60
|
|
-0.0013
|
-0.08
|
|
-0.0088
|
-0.56
|
|
|
Hh_Size
|
0.0026
|
0.48
|
|
0.0022
|
0.40
|
|
0.0021
|
0.37
|
|
|
Physical_Inactivity
|
-0.0391
|
-2.30
|
**
|
-0.0504
|
-3.29
|
***
|
-0.0439
|
-2.62
|
***
|
|
Memory
|
0.0061
|
2.69
|
***
|
0.0060
|
2.60
|
***
|
0.0065
|
2.86
|
***
|
|
Continental
|
-0.0140
|
-0.77
|
|
-0.0042
|
-0.25
|
|
0.0037
|
0.22
|
|
|
Socialdemocratic
|
0.0652
|
3.42
|
***
|
0.0512
|
2.40
|
**
|
0.0784
|
4.36
|
***
|
|
Mediterranean
|
-0.0669
|
-3.41
|
***
|
-0.0553
|
-3.00
|
***
|
-0.0471
|
-2.53
|
**
|
|
Chronic diseases
|
-0.1309
|
-2.49
|
**
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Self-rated Health
|
|
|
|
-0.0936
|
-2.46
|
**
|
|
|
|
|
Depression
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-0.0739
|
-1.97
|
**
|
|
Constant
|
0.7908
|
14.58
|
***
|
0.8617
|
14.07
|
***
|
0.7942
|
14.63
|
***
|
|
Observations
|
13232
|
|
|
13179
|
|
|
13149
|
|
|
|
Wald Chi2
|
650.65
|
***
|
|
660.09
|
***
|
|
654.60
|
***
|
|
|
Log Likelihood
|
-17116.06
|
|
|
-15074.79
|
|
|
-14999.20
|
|
|
|
Test of endogeneity
|
7.04
|
***
|
|
4.87
|
**
|
|
8.52
|
***
|
|
|
Help_outside
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
|
Gender
|
0.0136
|
1.57
|
|
0.0055
|
0.66
|
|
0.0235
|
2.5
|
**
|
|
Age
|
-0.0083
|
-12.56
|
***
|
-0.0093
|
-15.51
|
***
|
-0.0095
|
-15.75
|
***
|
|
Edu_Years
|
0.0039
|
3.92
|
***
|
0.0038
|
3.81
|
***
|
0.0041
|
4.14
|
***
|
|
Income_Middle
|
0.0096
|
1.00
|
|
0.0070
|
0.74
|
|
0.0077
|
0.8
|
|
|
Income_Upper
|
0.0163
|
1.53
|
|
0.0144
|
1.35
|
|
0.0165
|
1.55
|
|
|
Retired vs. Employed
|
0.0333
|
2.34
|
**
|
0.0156
|
1.21
|
|
0.0086
|
0.68
|
|
|
Other vs. Employed
|
0.0131
|
0.76
|
|
-0.0092
|
-0.59
|
|
-0.0103
|
-0.68
|
|
|
Hh_Size
|
-0.0275
|
-5.19
|
***
|
-0.0277
|
-5.23
|
***
|
-0.0288
|
-5.39
|
***
|
|
Physical_Inactivity
|
-0.0488
|
-3.07
|
***
|
-0.0690
|
-4.78
|
***
|
-0.0465
|
-2.94
|
***
|
|
Memory
|
0.0086
|
3.97
|
***
|
0.0092
|
4.28
|
***
|
0.0082
|
3.77
|
***
|
|
Continental
|
-0.0139
|
-0.81
|
|
0.0033
|
0.21
|
|
0.0131
|
0.83
|
|
|
Socialdemocratic
|
0.0780
|
4.31
|
***
|
0.0727
|
3.74
|
***
|
0.0965
|
5.6
|
***
|
|
Mediterranean
|
-0.0799
|
-4.30
|
***
|
-0.0624
|
-3.56
|
***
|
-0.0491
|
-2.75
|
***
|
|
Chronic diseases
|
-0.1749
|
-3.92
|
***
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Self-rated Health
|
|
|
|
-0.0839
|
-2.74
|
**
|
|
|
|
|
Depression
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-0.1404
|
-4.24
|
***
|
|
Constant
|
0.9109
|
17.49
|
***
|
0.9716
|
17.21
|
***
|
0.9227
|
17.71
|
***
|
|
Observations
|
13236
|
|
|
13183
|
|
|
13153
|
|
|
|
Wald Chi2
|
1036.86
|
***
|
|
1062.89
|
***
|
|
1053.86
|
***
|
|
|
Log Likelihood
|
-16505.67
|
|
|
-14463.15
|
|
|
-14398.63
|
|
|
|
Test of endogeneity
|
14.92
|
***
|
|
5.08
|
**
|
|
18.90
|
***
|
|
|
Help_within
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
Coeff.
|
z
|
P>z
|
|
Gender
|
0.0297
|
2.63
|
***
|
0.0136
|
1.34
|
|
0.0281
|
2.76
|
***
|
|
Age
|
0.0018
|
2.36
|
**
|
0.0013
|
1.86
|
*
|
0.0019
|
2.91
|
***
|
|
Edu_Years
|
-0.0010
|
-0.74
|
|
-0.0014
|
-1.12
|
|
-0.0004
|
-0.33
|
|
|
Income_Middle
|
0.0042
|
0.34
|
|
-0.0083
|
-0.73
|
|
0.0002
|
0.02
|
|
|
Income_Upper
|
-0.0237
|
-1.65
|
*
|
-0.0407
|
-3.15
|
***
|
-0.0131
|
-1.09
|
|
|
Retired vs. Employed
|
0.0682
|
3.56
|
***
|
0.0382
|
2.23
|
**
|
-0.0008
|
-0.05
|
|
|
Other vs. Employed
|
0.0833
|
3.96
|
***
|
0.0509
|
2.70
|
***
|
0.0030
|
0.18
|
|
|
Hh_Size
|
0.0182
|
3.01
|
***
|
0.0188
|
3.25
|
***
|
0.0273
|
4.19
|
***
|
|
Physical_Inactivity
|
0.0518
|
3.32
|
***
|
0.0389
|
2.77
|
***
|
0.0086
|
0.62
|
|
|
Memory
|
-0.0055
|
-1.97
|
**
|
-0.0055
|
-2.21
|
**
|
-0.0011
|
-0.46
|
|
|
Receiving_help
|
0.1061
|
7.36
|
***
|
0.0819
|
5.88
|
***
|
0.0902
|
5.87
|
***
|
|
Continental
|
-0.1043
|
-5.39
|
***
|
-0.0729
|
-4.20
|
***
|
-0.0532
|
-3.32
|
***
|
|
Socialdemocratic
|
-0.1090
|
-4.92
|
***
|
-0.1615
|
-8.06
|
***
|
-0.0792
|
-4.32
|
***
|
|
Mediterranean
|
-0.0548
|
-2.54
|
**
|
-0.0404
|
-2.09
|
**
|
-0.0260
|
-1.41
|
|
|
Chronic diseases
|
-0.4332
|
-34.91
|
***
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Self-rated Health
|
|
|
|
-0.4326
|
-36.13
|
***
|
|
|
|
|
Depression
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0.0119
|
0.36
|
|
|
Constant
|
0.2021
|
3.08
|
***
|
0.3982
|
6.60
|
***
|
-0.0962
|
-1.68
|
*
|
|
Observations
|
4656
|
|
|
4634
|
|
|
4615
|
|
|
|
Wald Chi2
|
1318.33
|
***
|
|
1397.63
|
***
|
|
136.85
|
***
|
|
|
Log Likelihood
|
-3592.05
|
|
|
-2002.05
|
|
|
-3583.52
|
|
|
|
Test of endogeneity
|
299.29
|
***
|
|
525.46
|
***
|
|
0.38
|
|
|
Source: Own calculations.
|
|
Help_total
|
Help_outside
|
Help_within
|
|
Chronic diseases
|
-0.1545
|
***
|
-0.1837
|
***
|
-0.5459
|
***
|
|
Self-rated Health
|
-0.1095
|
***
|
-0.1108
|
***
|
-0.5537
|
***
|
|
Depression
|
-0.0939
|
**
|
-0.1559
|
***
|
0.0130
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Help_total
|
Help_outside
|
Help_within
|
|
Chronic diseases
|
-0.1493
|
***
|
-0.1924
|
***
|
-0.6022
|
***
|
|
Self-rated Health
|
-0.1264
|
***
|
-0.0915
|
**
|
-0.5451
|
***
|
|
Depression
|
-0.0806
|
*
|
-0.1685
|
***
|
-0.0687
|
*
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Help_total
|
Help_outside
|
Help_within
|
|
Chronic diseases
|
-0.0904
|
*
|
-0.0910
|
*
|
-0.1170
|
*
|
|
Self-rated Health
|
-0.0243
|
|
-0.0352
|
*
|
-0.3504
|
**
|
|
Depression
|
-0.0569
|
*
|
-0.0857
|
*
|
0.0025
|
|
|
|
Effects of health
variables
|
Effects of confounders
|
Reverse causality
issues
|
|
Help-giving Total
|
All coefficients on health variables,
which are of our main interest, are of the expected, negative sign and
significant; but only after controlling for reverse causality
|
Significant and of expected sign:
Gender, age, education, physical inactivity, memory, welfare regimes
|
Only with the inclusion of the
instruments for each health variable, are
the results as expected
|
|
Help-giving Outside
|
All coefficients on health variables,
which are of our main interest, are of the expected, negative sign and
significant; but only after controlling for reverse causality
|
Significant and of expected sign: Age,
education, household size, physical inactivity, memory, welfare regimes
|
Only with the inclusion of the
instruments for each health variable, are
the results as expected
|
|
Help-giving Within
|
All coefficients on health variables,
which are of our main interest, are of the expected, negative sign and
significant; but only after controlling for reverse causality and including
an auxiliary variable
|
Significant and of expected sign:
Gender, age, income, employment status, household size, physical inactivity,
memory, welfare regimes
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One does not observe the expected
relationships even after endogeneity is provided for by the instrumental
variable correction. Only with the final intervention, inclusion of the
auxiliary variable of receiving is care within household the issue solved,
providing the (negative) sign and significance of almost all of the
coefficients on health variables.
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Visits refer to users (not robots) and are expressed cumulatively .
Article visits include visits to the article web page and visits to all full text files regarding this article.
To obtain a more realistic insight into the actual visits and reduce the possibility of manipulation (manually or automated) the following records were filtered out: - detected robot visits
- consecutive access to the same page or full text file from the same IP addres
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September, 2018
III/2018
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